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Along with a 1 reported case in Massachusetts, the

New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has confirmed a person infected with eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) has died. The public health agency said the person was hospitalized due to severe central nervous system disease. The last reported human EEEV infection in New Hampshire was in 2014, when DHHS identified 3 human infections, including 2 fatalities. In the same statement, DHHS mentions there has been 1 confirmed case in Vermont this summer.

On August 16, the Massachusetts Department of Public Health (MDPH) released a statement discussing the confirmation of the first human case of EEE in the state this year. The confirmed case was discovered in an 80 year old man who was exposed to the vector borne disease in Worcester County. As a result, the risk level in the local communities of Douglas, Oxford, Sutton, and Webster has been raised to critical, and in Dudley, Northbridge, and Uxbridge the risk is increased to high.

Additionally, the neighboring communities of Auburn, Charlton, Grafton, Leicester, Mendon, Millbury, Millville, Southbridge, and Upton are now considered at moderate risk according to MDPH.

“This is the first time we have seen a person infected with EEE in Massachusetts since 2020,” Public Health Commissioner Robbie Goldstein, MD, PhD, said in a statement. “EEE is a rare but serious disease and a public health concern. We want to remind residents of the need to protect themselves from mosquito bites, especially in areas of the state where we are seeing EEE activity.

Though very rare, EEE is serious and a potentially fatal disease that can affect people of all ages. EEE is generally spread to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. There were 12 human cases of EEE in Massachusetts in 2019 with 6 deaths, and 5 human cases with 1 death in 2020. There were no human cases of EEE in Massachusetts in 2021, 2022, or 2023.

EEE has a fatality rate of 33% to 70%, with most deaths occurring 2–10 days after the onset of symptoms.

In addition to a high mortality rate, long-term physical and mental complications, including permanent neurological deficits have been identified in many people who survive EEE.

Plymouth is approximately 40 miles south of Boston along the coast, and Worcester County is in the middle of the state, so the 2 areas are not in close proximity, but due to the elevated risk locally, the town of Plymouth decided to take action in response to outdoor parks. As of last Friday, all town public parks and fields are close daily from dusk until dawn.

“As Mass DPH has now elevated Plymouth’s EEE risk status to high, it is important to take extra precautions when outdoors and follow state and local health guidelines to avoid unnecessary risk to exposure to EEE. The health and safety of our community, residents, and visitors remain our priority,” Plymouth’s Commissioner of Health and Human Services, Michelle Bratti, said in a statement.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) most people who are infected with the virus do not develop symptoms; however, for those that do, the date from the bite to the onset of the illness is 4 to 10 days. EEE can also result in fever or neurologic disease. The type of illness will depend on the age of the person and other factors. Those who are infected can develop meningitis.

There are no FDA-approved treatments for EEE and for patients who develop severe cases, they can be hospitalized to receive supportive treatment.

Over the weekend, MDPH detailed plans of spraying for mosquitos including aerially in areas of Plymouth County, and truck-mounted spraying in parts of Worcester County. As of Saturday, 10 communities in Massachusetts were raised to high or critical risk for EEE virus.

“The risk from EEE is high in parts of Plymouth County and critical in parts of Worcester County,” State Epidemiologist Catherine M. Brown, DVM, said in a statement. “In addition to recommending that people use mosquito repellent with an EPA-registered active ingredient and clothing to reduce exposed skin, we also recommend that evening outdoor events be rescheduled to avoid the hours between dusk and dawn. The mosquitoes most likely to spread EEE are most active during the dusk to dawn hours.”

There are preventative strategies to avoid EEE, and the MDPH has listed such measures 

For those who live in Massachusetts and want more information on EEE, it can be found 

 or by calling the DPH Division of Epidemiology at 617-983-6800.

1.NH DHHS Identifies Person Infected with Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in New Hampshire.The New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services. August 27, 2024. Accessed August 28, 2024.
https://www.dhhs.nh.gov/news-and-media/nh-dhhs-identifies-person-infected-eastern-equine-encephalitis-virus-new-hampshire
2. State health officials announce season’s first human case of Eastern Equine Encephalitis in Massachusetts. MDPH. August 16, 2024. Accessed August 27, 2024.
https://www.mass.gov/news/state-health-officials-announce-seasons-first-human-case-of-eastern-equine-encephalitis-in-massachusetts
3.Plymouth to Close all Public Parks and Fields from Dusk to Dawn. Town of Plymouth. August 23, 2024. Accessed August 27, 2024. PDF.
4. Eastern Equine Encephalitis: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment. CDC. May 15, 2024. Accessed August 27, 2024.
https://www.cdc.gov/eastern-equine-encephalitis/symptoms-diagnosis-treatment/index.html
5. State officials announce plans to spray for mosquitoes in sections of Worcester and Plymouth counties due to EEE. MDPH. August 24, 2024. Accessed August 27, 2024. 
https://www.mass.gov/news/state-officials-announce-plans-to-spray-for-mosquitoes-in-sections-of-worcester-and-plymouth-counties-due-to-eee



The town of Plymouth decided to prohibit people from using the parks from dusk to dawn due to concerns over eastern equine encephalitis after a man contracted the rare disease in the state.

Concerns Over Mosquito-Borne Illness Causes Massachusetts Town to Create Curfew for Parks, Spraying in Counties

From Pathogen to Infectious Disease Diagnosis: Test Determines Between Bacterial and Viral Infections in 15 Minutes

MeMed CEO Eran Eden, PhD, discusses the MeMed BV test, a rapid diagnostic tool that distinguishes between bacterial and viral infections in just 15 minutes, aiding clinical decision-making and antibiotic stewardship. The blood test, which analyzes three host-response proteins and generates a score to assess bacterial infection likelihood, has received FDA 510(k) clearance and the European CE Mark. Clinical studies showed a 63% reduction in unnecessary antibiotic use, accurate identification of previously missed bacterial infections, and better performance than traditional biomarkers like procalcitonin. Eden highlights the test’s ability to address diagnostic gaps, such as inaccessible infections, pathogen colonization, and superinfections, and reduce uncertainty that often leads to antibiotic misuse. By improving diagnostic accuracy, the MeMed BV test contributes to safer patient care and helps combat antimicrobial resistance.

CDC ACIP Meeting Examines Next Steps for Meningococcal, RSV, and Chikungunya Vaccination

At its April 16, 2025, meeting, the CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) issued updated guidance on meningococcal, RSV, and chikungunya vaccines. ACIP supported using GSK’s MenABCWY pentavalent vaccine when both MenACWY and MenB are indicated, while also reviewing safety concerns with Sanofi’s MenQuadfi in infants. For RSV, ACIP recommended vaccinating at-risk adults aged 50–59, with further guidance pending on risk criteria and potential expansion to younger adults. Regarding chikungunya, ACIP endorsed the virus-like particle vaccine for travelers aged 12+ and lab workers with exposure risk, and the live attenuated vaccine for younger travelers, while noting rare but serious adverse events under investigation.

Disrupting HBV Chromatin Structure Blocks X Gene Transcription and Infection

A recent study led by Yael David, PhD, at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center uncovers how nucleosome positioning on hepatitis B virus (HBV) cccDNA directly controls transcription of the X gene, a key step in establishing infection. The research demonstrates that the chromatin-destabilizing compound CBL137 selectively disrupts HBV chromatin structure, reducing X gene transcription and blocking infection in primary human hepatocytes. These findings highlight a novel antiviral strategy that targets the epigenetic regulation of cccDNA, marking a shift from traditional replication-inhibiting therapies toward approaches that silence the viral reservoir itself, offering new potential in the pursuit of a functional cure for chronic hepatitis B.

Follow the Science: Why CD4 Testing is Critical in the Fight Against HIV/AIDS

Andreas Boehmler, PhD, emphasizes that expanding access to CD4 testing is essential for meeting global HIV/AIDS targets, particularly the UNAIDS 95-95-95 goal. Despite advances in HIV care, millions remain undiagnosed or untreated, and only 51% of countries incorporate CD4 testing in screening protocols for patients reentering care. CD4 testing, which tracks immune cell levels and signals disease progression, is vital for identifying advanced HIV, detecting treatment failure, and guiding care. Technological advancements have streamlined the once-complex process, making testing faster and more accessible. However, achieving widespread implementation requires strong infrastructure, trained personnel, reliable reagent delivery, and public-private partnerships. Boehmler calls for increased investment and international cooperation to sustain testing efforts and ultimately combat the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Longhorn Advances a Scalable Universal Flu Vaccine

Longhorn Vaccines and Diagnostics has developed a novel universal influenza vaccine, LHNVD-110, designed to protect against human, avian, and swine flu strains, including pandemic variants like H5N1. Presented at ESCMID 2025, the single-composite peptide vaccine uses conserved epitopes from multiple influenza proteins and an ALFQ adjuvant to generate strong, durable immune responses in preclinical models with no observed reactogenicity. Jeff Fischer, MBA, president of Longhorn, emphasized the vaccine’s scalability, year-round manufacturing potential, and advantages over current seasonal flu vaccines. Positioned as a key tool in pandemic preparedness and aligned with a One Health approach, the vaccine and its monoclonal antibody cocktail are expected to enter IND-enabling studies in late 2025, with human trials to follow.

This week, the CDC ACIP's endorsement of meningococcal, RSV, and chikungunya vaccines, the need to expand automated CD4 testing for improved HIV/AIDS care, and more.

Conferences

Over 3 Million Children Died From AMR-Linked Infections in 2022

Gepotidacin, which was FDA approved last month for uncomplicated urinary tract infections, was found to be efficacious against gonorrhea even slightly exceeding the standard treatment for the sexually transmitted infection (STI). The study’s results were published in 

“Results of the primary analysis of microbiological response at test-of-cure demonstrated microbiological success rates of 92.6% (187 of 202 [95% CI 88·0 to 95·8]) in the gepotidacin group and 91.2% (186 of 204 [86·4 to 94·7]) in the ceftriaxone plus azithromycin group (adjusted treatment difference –0·1% [95% CI –5·6 to 5·5]),” The authors wrote. 

In terms of safety, the gepotidacin group did see higher rates of adverse events compared to the other group, mainly gastrointestinal events. The authors write that almost all were mild or moderate. No treatment-related severe or serious adverse events occurred in either group.

This study labeled as EAGLE-1, was a phase 3 open-label noninferiority trial examining oral gepotidacin compared with ceftriaxone plus azithromycin. The former was taken as 2 3,000 mg doses administered 10–12 hours apart, and the latter treatment was 500 mg intramuscular ceftriaxone plus 1 g oral azithromycin.

Participants had to have a bodyweight over 45 kg, and had suspected uncomplicated urogenital gonorrhea (including mucopurulent discharge), a positive laboratory test for 

, or both. Patients were randomly allocated in a 1:1 ratio to each treatment group, stratified by sex and sexual orientation.

The primary efficacy endpoint was defined as eradication of gonorrhea at test-of-cure (days 4–8). The noninferiority margin was prespecified at –10%. The primary outcome was assessed in the microbiological intention-to-treat (micro-ITT) population, all participants randomly allocated to a study treatment who received at least 1 dose of their treatment and had confirmed ceftriaxone-susceptible 

 isolated from the baseline culture of their urogenital specimen, the authors explained.

“Gepotidacin demonstrated non-inferiority to ceftriaxone plus azithromycin for urogenital 

, with no new safety concerns, offering a novel oral treatment option for uncomplicated urogenital gonorrhea,” the authors wrote.

Investigational Antibiotic Shows Efficacy, Safety in Late Stage Trial for Uncomplicated Gonorrhea



In 2023, the last year for counting confirmed statistics, there were 601,319 cases in the US.

This does demonstrate a slight 5-year decrease of 2.4%.

 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there were 82.4 million cases in 2020. It is the second most prevalent STI behind chlamydia.

Last month, gepotidacin was FDA approved for uncomplicated urinary tract infections in female patients aged at least 12 years and weighing at least 40 kg. The approval is based on positive results from the pivotal phase 3 EAGLE-2 and EAGLE-3 trials which demonstrated non-inferiority to nitrofurantoin, one of the leading current standard of care options for uUTI, in female adults (≥40 kg) and paediatric patients (≥12 years, ≥40 kg) with a confirmed uUTI. In EAGLE-2, gepotidacin demonstrated non-inferiority in therapeutic success which occurred in 50.6% (162/320) of participants compared to 47.0% (135/287) for nitrofurantoin (covariate-adjusted treatment difference 4.3%, 95% CI (-3.6, 12.1)).

Clinical Implications, Study Takeaways of Gepotidacin For Uncomplicated UTIs

In EAGLE-3, gepotidacin demonstrated statistically significant superiority versus nitrofurantoin (one-sided p-value 0.0003). Therapeutic success occurred in 58.5% (162/277) of participants compared to 43.6% (115/264) for nitrofurantoin (covariate-adjusted treatment difference 14.6%, 95% CI (6.4, 22.8)).

The safety and tolerability profile of gepotidacin in the EAGLE-2 and EAGLE-3 phase III trials was consistent with previous trials. The most commonly reported adverse events (AEs) in gepotidacin participants were gastrointestinal (GI). Diarrhea was the most common (16% of participants), followed by nausea (9%). Of the participants who reported GI AEs in the gepotidacin group, the most common maximum severity was mild (69% Grade 1) and moderate (28% Grade 2). Participants with Grade 3 GI events accounted for 3% of all patients with GI events and occurred in <1% of all participants. There was one drug-related serious adverse event in each treatment arm (

 and nitrofurantoin) across the 2 trials.

GSK plans to file for FDA approval for treatment of gonorrhea later this year.




References

1. Ross J, et al. Oral gepotidacin for the treatment of uncomplicated urogenital gonorrhoea (EAGLE-1): a phase 3 randomised, open-label, non-inferiority, multicentre study. 

April 14, 2025. Accessed April 15, 2025.
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)00628-2
2. Table 2. Trends in Reported Cases and Rates of Reported Cases for Nationally Notifiable STIs, United States. CDC. November 12, 2024. Accessed April 15, 2025.


https://www.cdc.gov/sti-statistics/data-vis/table-trends.html


3. Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection). WHO. July 4, 2024. Accessed April 15, 2025. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/gonorrhoea-(neisseria-gonorrhoeae-infection)
4. Blujepa (gepotidacin) approved by US FDA for treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections (uUTIs) in female adults and pediatric patients 12 years of age and older. GSK. March 25, 2025. Accessed March 25, 2025.
https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/press-releases/blujepa-gepotidacin-approved-by-us-fda-for-treatment-of-uncomplicated-urinary-tract-infections/



In a phase 3 study, GSK’s gepotidacin demonstrated 92% efficacy against the sexually transmitted infection. 

Newly FDA-Approved UTI Antibiotic Shows High Efficacy for Gonorrhea Treatment

 has introduced a novel single-composite peptide vaccine that offers broad protection against human, avian, and swine influenza strains including pandemic variants such as H5N1. The unconjugated vaccine combines highly conserved epitopes from key influenza proteins, hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and matrix proteins (M1, M2, M2e), with the ALFQ adjuvant to stimulate a strong immune response.

 first spoke with Jeff Fischer, president of Longhorn Vaccines & Diagnostics, in November 2024, he described the vaccine as a simplified, scalable formulation designed for global immunization efforts. In preclinical trials, the vaccine demonstrated robust serum IgG1 antibody responses, effectively neutralizing and inhibiting hemagglutination in both Group 1 and Group 2 influenza viruses. The inclusion of a universal T cell epitope further supports the development of long-term immune protection.

In this Q&A from ESCMID 2025, Fisher shares updates on the vaccine’s preclinical performance, its potential role in pandemic preparedness, and the path forward toward human trials.

Q: The LHNVD-110 vaccine shows broad strain coverage in pigs. What data can you share about its efficacy and safety in these models, and how confident are you that these results will translate to human populations?

Fischer: “The pig data we are presenting at ESCMID matches our previous data in mice. In both pigs and mice, the vaccine consistently generates high, durable IgG levels that bind and neutralize across influenza strains. There has also been no sign of reactogenicity. We look forward to future possibilities to study LHNVD-110 in humans with the goal of replicating results in mice and pigs.”

Q: Given the global burden of both influenza and COVID-19, what role could a universal vaccine play in pandemic preparedness?

Fischer: “A universal vaccine could play multiple roles in pandemic preparedness. It could be stockpiled for deployment once a pandemic strain is identified, providing at least a baseline level of protection while a strain-specific vaccine is developed. It could also replace the seasonal vaccine to generate coverage in advance of a pandemic and potentially prevent pandemics from ever happening.”

Q: How does the LHNVD-110 vaccine compare to currently available seasonal flu vaccines?

Fischer: “LHNVD-110 durability and consistency across strains suggests it should have significant advantages over current seasonal vaccines. As a composite peptide vaccine, it is easy to scale manufacturing. The likely durability of a year or more would allow the vaccine to be administered at any time during the year, as compared to the seasonal vaccine that must be closely timed to the expected flu season. For a vaccine manufacturer, manufacturing can be spread out over the year, and unused doses can be carried over from year to year, which also eliminates waste.”

Q: What are the next steps for these vaccine candidates, involving plans for human clinical trials and trial design?

Fischer: “LHNVD-110 generates monoclonal antibodies that have been modified for extended half-life, so the vaccine will likely proceed into clinical trials. The objective will be to demonstrate the targeted epitopes’ effectiveness in providing immunocompromised patients potent protection against influenza and COVID-19 that is not currently available. As a cocktail, those antibodies are expected to move into IND-enabling studies in the second half of 2025. The vaccine will follow and could be expedited if concerns grow over a pandemic.”

Q: How does considering both human and animal health in the design of these vaccines influence your target strategy for emerging infectious diseases?

Fischer: “Our One Health perspective covers global populations of humans and animals. Targeting multiple antigens on the influenza virus allows the vaccine to provide broad species protection and overcome viral mutations. Our vaccine design is easily scalable to allow for cost-effective immunization for large populations of humans or animals. It can be scaled regionally to bring production and access to both the Developed and Developing World.”

Jeff Fischer, MBA, discusses promising preclinical data on a cross-species, cross-strain influenza candidate with pandemic potential at the 2025 Congress of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

Despite major advances in the detection and treatment of HIV/AIDS, the disease remains a global health crisis. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 630,000 people died from HIV-related causes and about 1.3 million people acquired HIV in 2023. There were an estimated 39.9 million people living with HIV at the end of 2023, 65% of whom were in Africa.

There are multiple efforts underway to increase the diagnosis and treatment of HIV/AIDS, with many global health organizations implementing strategies aimed at ending the epidemic by 2030. One such initiative is the UNAIDS “95-95-95” goal, adopted by the United Nations’ member states in 2021. The program aims to hit the following targets by 2030: 95% of people living with HIV know their HIV status, at least 95% of people who know their status are on antiretroviral treatment, and at least 95% of people on treatment have a suppressed viral load.

Improving access to testing will be critical to meeting the 95-95-95 goals. Despite the wide availability of blood tests that patients can administer themselves at home, global rates of HIV status awareness lag UNAIDS targets in many countries, underscoring the need to improve the rates at which patients are referred to labs for testing.

There are 2 types of HIV testing technologies: one that measures the viral load and the other that counts CD4 cells, which are immune-boosting white blood cells. Both tests are essential for tracking progress and guiding treatment. But access to CD4 testing is still limited: Only 51% of countries that have screening policies include the use of CD4 testing to determine advanced HIV disease among patients who are entering or reentering care, according to the Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI).

Improving access to CD4 testing is a priority for the WHO. In a 2024 policy briefing, the agency emphasized the importance of conducting CD4 testing on patients who have re-engaged in care after a period of non-treatment, so they can be assessed for advanced HIV disease.

The Vital Role of CD4 in Monitoring HIV/AIDS Progression

Viral-load and CD4 testing are complementary in the effort to improve diagnosis and treatment outcomes in HIV/AIDS. CD4-positive cells are also known as “T helper cells,” because they boost the activity of other cells in the immune system, helping the body fend off infections. When HIV infects these T cells, CD4 counts decline.

The enumeration of CD4-positive T-cells is indispensable. Not only does it provide an important baseline for identifying advanced HIV disease, it also helps clinicians detect treatment failure, manage opportunistic infections and track how well patients are adhering to treatment. It’s important to follow the science: Clinical trials and cohort studies have consistently shown that CD4 is the best predictor of disease progression.

Automation has greatly enhanced CD4 testing. In the past, CD4 testing was a laborious manual process, with each test taking several hours to complete. Laboratories needed large staffs of specially trained researchers, who were often hard to find in developing countries. Today the technology is almost entirely automated from sample preparation through results reporting, allowing a CD4 test to be completed in under a half-hour.

That efficiency is vital, as most CD4 testing is performed by centralized labs. In an ideal scenario, patients would be able to stay at testing sites and wait for their results. Those whose CD4 levels indicate advanced HIV could then be prescribed appropriate treatments immediately, lowering the risk that they will disengage from needed care.

Requirements for a Strong CD4 Testing Infrastructure

In many countries where access to CD4 testing is challenging, the average daily income is between $1 and $2. It’s easy to imagine some patients having to decide between buying food for their children and getting a CD4 test. Ensuring access requires that countries set up sophisticated testing infrastructures that make it easy and affordable for everyone who needs a CD4 test to get one.

Improvements to CD4 testing technology are far from the only requirement for implementing a successful testing infrastructure. Countries must also perfect mechanisms for delivering reagents to labs, training personnel, providing maintenance services and implementing cold-chain logistics. This requires strong public-private partnerships between governments and the channel partners and market-access organizations that act as liaisons between technology providers and laboratories. Nonprofit agencies are important partners, too, because they often provide equipment donations that help sustain CD4 testing.

Our work in Africa to combat HIV/AIDS led us to discover another critical concern, which is that many cancer cases there were going undiagnosed, especially in young children. In 2018 we joined an important public-private partnership to solve that problem which continues to garner support. Beckman Coulter Life Sciences and the Indiana University School of Medicine were recently awarded a $2.5 million grant from the National Cancer Institute to expand testing for leukemia and lymphoma in Western Kenya. The funding will be used to expand adaption of flow cytometry methods for early cancer detection. The grant will support the implementation of sample workflow processes and training of lab personnel, in addition to enabling healthcare providers to bolster staffing and supplies. Among the partners in this effort is the Burkitt’s Lymphoma Fund for Africa, which is dedicated to combatting rising rates of hematological malignancies in the region.

“These diagnoses are pretty straightforward in affluent countries like the United States, where we have a lot of technology. In learning more about what was going on in Western Kenya, it became immediately obvious there were challenges to accurate and rapid cancer diagnosis,” said Steve Kussick, chief medical officer and director of contract research and flow cytometry at Phenopath, who provides remote training on rapid diagnosis techniques for practitioners in Kenya.

Prioritizing Funding for HIV/AIDS testing

When it comes to combatting HIV/AIDS, countries that want to improve rates of CD4 testing must make clear financial commitments to building the necessary infrastructure. Today many countries in Africa and other regions with high rates of HIV/AIDS heavily depend on funding and equipment donations from wealthier countries.

HIV financing in low- and middle-income countries has been falling steadily since 2017, according to data collected by CHAI. In 2023, financing for HIV/AIDS programs in those countries was $19.8 billion. Meanwhile, the amount these country’s governments spent servicing their debt was five times higher than what they spent on health services.

Securing the instruments needed for CD4 testing is the easy part. Providing a strong, sustainable infrastructure to ease access to testing is where the main challenge lies. To make progress in the fight against HIV/AIDS, governments must devote the necessary resources to addressing this challenge.

1.World Health Organization. HIV data and statistics. 

https://www.who.int/teams/global-hiv-hepatitis-and-stis-programmes/hiv/strategic-information/hiv-data-and-statistics

. Accessed January 30, 2025.
2.UNAIDS. Understanding measures of progress towards the 95–95–95 HIV testing, treatment and viral suppression targets. 

https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/progress-towards-95-95-95_en.pdf

. Accessed January 30, 2025.
3.Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. The urgency of now: AIDS at a crossroads. 2024. 

https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/2024-unaids-global-aids-update-summary_en.pdf

. Accessed January 30, 2025.
4.Clinton Health Access Initiative. HIV Market Report. December 2024. 

https://www.clintonhealthaccess.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-HIV-Market-Report_12.20.24.pdf

To meet ambitious targets for ending the HIV/AIDS epidemic, governments must unite in a global effort to improve access to CD4 testing.

Ian Frank, MD, University of Pennsylvania

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