Samuel L. Aitken, PharmD, MPH, BCIDP*

Antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria continue to be a significant cause of morbidity in the United States and worldwide. Recognizing this, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) issued an evidence-informed guidance document for the treatment of AMR gram-negative bacteria in 2020, containing recommendations for extended-spectrum β-lactamase(ESBL)- producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-E), carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), and difficult-to-treat resistance (DTR) 

 In December 2021, the second iteration of this guidance was released, offering treatment recommendations and suggestions for AmpC β-lactamase producing Enterobacterales

These documents, key components of the 2019 IDSA Strategic Plan, call for dissemination of timely practice recommendations. Unlike traditional guidelines, the IDSA guidance documents take a different path and do not rely on a formal systematic review of the literature or use of the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) criteria. Instead, the documents focus narrowly on specific clinical questions, which generally lack strong data and are the product of evidence-informed expert opinion.

The primary intent of the guidance documents is to provide recommendations for clinicians who have limited clinical experience in managing infections caused by these organisms. Through social media engagement, however, it quickly became apparent that infectious diseases specialists were key consumers of the IDSA guidance documents and able to provide essential input. This feedback actively informed development of the second guidance document and forthcoming revisions to the first document.

The development of the second guidance document also revealed a unique challenge that was not seen during the development process for the initial guidance. In contrast to that of ESBL-E, CRE, and DTR 

, the evidence base for treatment of AmpC-producing Enterobacterales, CRAB, and 

is very limited. In the case of CRAB, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) provide evidence for what 

to do from a treatment perspective, but very little for what might be considered optimal treatment. For 

, no quality evidence supporting preferred treatment could be identified. For that reason, both the CRAB and 

sections have “suggestions” rather than “recommendations” as the primary form of guidance.

Several key points in the guidance document deserve specific mention. First, the AmpC-producing Enterobacterales section provides recommendations on what organisms should be considered high risk for inducible selection of AmpC hyperexpressing mutants during therapy with third-generation cephalosporins. For many years, clinicians have learned the mnemonics “SPACE” and “SPICE” to identify such organisms and inform treatment recommendations. The specific organisms included in SPACE and SPICE are not always clear (particularly the “P” component), but generally include 

While easy to remember, these mnemonics oversimplify complex issues, include organisms that don’t produce AmpC, and fail to address recent taxonomic changes. As examples, many organisms in the 

, lack a chromosomal AmpC gene altogether.

, but they have been reassigned to the genera 

, respectively (both are at low risk for inducible AmpC expression). The newly created 

) is omitted entirely from these mnemonics, as is the uncommonly encountered 

, which appears to have a risk profile similar to the classic AmpC producer 

. The guidance document suggests treating only 

as clinically significant AmpC producers and avoiding definitive therapy with third-generation cephalosporins and piperacillin-tazobactam, and instead favoring cefepime or carbapenems as the preferred β-lactam agents.

which does have a chromosomal AmpC gene, is specifically excluded from this list, as significant risk for inducible expression does not appear to be present in most infection types.

Second, the lack of a specific, definitive treatment recommendation for CRAB must be mentioned. Currently available RCT data suggest that carbapenem, rifampin, and cefiderocol are not superior to monotherapy with colistin. Unfortunately, however, the published literature does not provide any guidance on what the optimal therapy might be. The panel consensus was that colistin or polymyxin therapy was likely suboptimal (contrary to the RCTs as described) and so combination therapy was recommended. In vitro models suggest that triple combination therapy of ampicillin-sulbactam, meropenem, and either minocycline or polymyxin demonstrate bactericidal killing, but it is impossible to make recommendations solely on the basis of in vitro pharmacodynamic assays.

 Thus, these combinations are mentioned as possibilities, but are not specifically prioritized. Largely on the basis of small, uncontrolled studies suggesting that high-dose ampicillin-sulbactam might be beneficial even in ampicillin-sulbactam– resistant isolates, ampicillin-sulbactam is a suggested as a primary component of combination therapy.

Lastly, the lack of recommendations that could be made for 

was surprising. The body of evidence supporting the use of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary therapy is nearly nonexistent, although trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole remains the preferred therapy for serious infections in the absence of any evidence reasonably supporting an alternative therapy. A major reason for this is that 

causes a spectrum of illness, ranging from simple colonization of the respiratory tract or intravenous catheters to rapidly fatal pneumonia and disseminated infection. Objectively distinguishing these infections in patients with acute-on-chronic illness can be nearly impossible, making observational research incredibly challenging. Both fluoroquinolones and minocycline have been studied in an observational fashion as alternatives to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; however, all studies are nearly hopelessly confounded by selection bias and are largely uninformative for clinical decision-making. Thus, no firm recommendations beyond maintaining the status quo of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as the treatment of choice for 

Unlike the first iteration of the IDSA guidance, clear recommendations were difficult to identify for the treatment of infections caused by AmpC-producing Enterobacterales, CRAB, and 

. However, the guidance documents do offer a summary of the available literature and evidence-informed suggestions (or recommendations) from a panel of clinicians with clinical and research expertise in these infections. As with the first IDSA guidance for the treatment of infections caused by drug-resistant gram-negative bacteria, any suggestions or recommendations, whether provided as formal letters to the editor, informal direct communication with the authors, or posts on social media, will be routinely assessed and updated as new evidence becomes available.

Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America guidance on the treatment of extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing enterobacterales (ESBL-E), carbapenem-resistant enterobacterales (CRE), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with difficult-to-treat resistance (DTR-P. aeruginosa). 

2021;72(7):e169-e183. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1478 

Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America guidance on the treatment of AmpC β-lactamase-producing enterobacterales, carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia infections. 

 Published online December 5, 2021. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab1013 

. 2009;22(1):161-182. doi:10.1128/CMR.00036-08 

Kohlmann R, Bähr T, Gatermann SG. Species-specific mutation rates for ampC derepression in Enterobacterales with chromosomally encoded inducible AmpC β-lactamase. 

 2018;73(6):1530-1536. doi:10.1093/jac/dky084 

Lenhard JR, Thamlikitkul V, Silveira FP, et al. Polymyxin-resistant, carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii is eradicated by a triple combination of agents that lack individual activity. 

2017;72(5):1415-1420. doi:10.1093/jac/dkx002 

Beganovic M, Daffinee KE, Luther MK, LaPlante KL. Minocycline alone and in combination with polymyxin B, meropenem, and sulbactam against carbapenem-susceptible and -resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model. 

 2021;65(3):e01680-20. doi:10.1128/AAC.01680-20

Articles

The 2019 Strategic Plan of the Infectious Diseases Society of America lays
the groundwork for understanding prescribing practices.

Updates to Multidrug Resistance Guidance

spp are relatively uncommon pathogens that are increasingly seen as causes of clinically significant infections, particularly respiratory tract infections among immunocompromised hosts and other vulnerable populations.

Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) are at an elevated risk for chronic infections and morbidity. According to the 2017 

, which provides comprehensive data on nearly 30,000 patients with CF, 

complex in a further 2.5%.5 Patients with cancer, specif&shy;ically those with a hematologic malignancy, are also at height&shy;ened risk for infections with these organisms.

can have devastating complications in patients with a hematologic malignancy, for which mortality approaches 100% in patients with hemorrhagic pneumonia.

These pathogens share many features, including their envi&shy;ronmental origins, ability to cause persistent infections due to biofilm formation, and intrinsic multidrug resistance, specifi&shy;cally to most β-lactam agents. Although other antimicrobials, particularly trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, later-generation tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones, may be active in vitro and have clinical utility, emerging resistance and concerns over toxicity and efficacy in serious infections highlight a potential role for the newly available β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations ceftazidime/avibactam, imipenem/relebactam, meropenem/vaborbactam, and ceftolozane/tazobactam. In this short review, we describe the mechanisms of β-lactam resistance for 

spp and demonstrate how understanding the mechanistic basis of resistance is necessary to define the role of β-lactam /β-lactamase inhibitor combinations against these organisms. We additionally summarize clinical data on their use.

is an intrinsically carbapenem -resistant organism and is the leading carbapenem-resistant pathogen isolated from patients with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia.

 Trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole is the current drug of choice; however, resistance is increasingly described, and its utility is limited in patients with hematologic malignancy and transplant recip&shy;ients because of concerns for myelosuppression and nephro&shy;toxicity.

 The characteristic β-lactam resistance profile of 

is achieved through the production of 2 chro&shy;mosomal, inducible β-lactamase enzymes: L1, an Ambler class B metallo-β-lactamase, and L2, an Ambler class A serine β-lactamase.

 L1 has a substrate profile similar to that of other metallo-β-lactamases and hydrolyzes all commercially available β-lactamases, with the exception of aztreonam, and is not inhib&shy;ited by commercially available β-lactamase inhibitors. L2 is a relatively narrow-spectrum cephalosporinase that hydrolyzes most cephalosporins and aztreonam but has no activity against carbapenems. L2 is inhibited by clavulanate but is generally not inhibited by the sulfone β-lactamase inhibitors sulbactam and tazobactam.

When both enzymes are expressed in combination, most β-lactams are eliminated as therapeutic options for 

and commercially available β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors have no added activity.

 Results from surveillance studies indicate similar resistance profiles for ceftazidime and ceftazidime/avibactam, meropenem and meropenem/ vaborbactam, and imipenem and imipenem/relebactam (

). One approach to overcoming β-lactam— mediated resistance is to employ a combination of aztreonam, which is not hydrolyzed by L1, and avibactam, which inhibits L2. Mojica et al evaluated the combination of aztreonam and avibactam against 27 clinical isolates of aztreonam-resistant 

and found that the combination restored activity in 23 of 27 isolates.

 These findings have been confirmed by others.

 Because aztreonam/avibactam is not commercially available, the combination of ceftazidime/avibactam and aztre&shy;onam has been used clinically. This triple-drug combination was used to successfully treat a renal transplant recipient with refractory 

 Recent whole-genome sequencing evaluations of 

suggest that L1 and L2 are subject to a high degree of interstrain vari&shy;ability with implications for β-lactam substrate specificity and inhibitor profile.13 Additional in vitro surveillance and clinical data are needed before this combination can be broadly recom&shy;mended, though the ability of most clinical microbiology laboratories to test for activity of this combination is limited. The combination of aztreonam and clavulanate has similar activity to aztreonam and avibactam, but as no intra&shy;venous formulation of clavulanate is available commercially in the United States, the thera&shy;peutic potential of this synergy is limited.

Although relebactam is structurally similar to avibactam, it appears to be a less potent inhib&shy;itor of L2 than avibactam, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 470nM against L2 relative to 15nM for avibactam.

 No data have been published for the boronic acid inhib&shy;itor vaborbactam. Ceftolozane/tazobactam has activity similar to that of ceftazidime and lacks additional activity against ceftazidime-resistant strains of 

have been described as causing infections in humans, 

is intrinsically resistant to aztreonam and most cephalosporins, whereas piperacillin/ tazobactam and the carbapenems, including ertapenem, have activity.

 The molecular mechanisms of β-lactam resistance in 

are not fully characterized; however, both multidrug efflux pumps and a narrow-spectrum Ambler class D β-lactamase, OXA-114, contribute to resistance.

 OXA-114 is a chromosomally encoded, noninducible serine β-lactamase that hydrolyzes piperacillin but otherwise does not appear to contribute to β

 Two resistance-nodulation-division (RND)—type efflux pumps, AxyABM and AxyXY-OprZ, mediate resistance to aztreonam, cefepime, fluoroquinolones, and aminoglyco&shy;sides inherent to 

 Acquisition of exogenous β-lactamases, including extended -spectrum β-lactamases and metallo-β

lact&shy;amases, contributes to β-lactam resistance.

Because of the lack of clinically significant endogenous β-lactamases, β-lactam/β-lact&shy;amase inhibitor combinations are not expected to have any significant activity against 

. Surveillance data indicate that ceftazidime/avibactam and ceftolozane/ tazobactam are both essentially inactive against 

 No published data are available on the carbapenem-based combination agents imipenem/relebactam and meropenem/vaborbactam.

includes several clini&shy;cally relevant organisms, including the 

genus possess a large genome with multiple chromo&shy;somes, which leads to genetic plasticity and multiple antimicrobial resistance determinants.

, the causative agent of melioidosis, is not found in the United States, and 

, the cause of glanders, is largely of histor&shy;ical concern.

 Therefore, these organisms are not further discussed. The 

B cepacia, Burkholderia cenocepacia, Burkholderia multivorans, 

and others, are predom&shy;inantly pathogens in patients with CF but have been described in other patients, particularly those with chronic granulomatous disease.

 In addition to intrinsic resistance to penicillins and narrow-spectrum cephalosporins, 

spp are intrinsically resistant to the polymyxins through alterations in lipid A, which lead to changes in net lipopolysaccharide charge and decreased poly&shy;myxin binding affinity.

spp produce numerous efflux pumps, including at least 6 RND-type efflux pumps in the 

complex is medi&shy;ated predominantly through 2 chromosomal β-lact&shy;amase enzymes, a broad-spectrum, Ambler class A carbapenemase (either PenB in 

and AmpC-like enzymes that hydro&shy;lyze penicillins, extended-spectrum cephalosporins, and carbapenems.

-controlled mechanism similar to other gram-negative organisms with chromosomal, inducible AmpC β-lactamases.

 As these enzymes are not constitutively expressed, β-lactams, partic&shy;ularly ceftazidime and meropenem, are frequently active against 

 However, when PenA or PenB is expressed, 

complex species become resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporins and carbapenems. Efflux pumps, particularly RND-3 pumps, also appear to have a role in resistance to ceftazidime and meropenem.

 Similar to other class A enzymes, avibactam is a potent inhibitor of PenA in 

and can restore in vitro activity against ceftazidime-resistant strains.

 Ceftazidime/avibactam has been used successfully in the treatment of a 2-month-old child with refractory 

complex bacteremia who had failed both ceftazidime and meropenem, as well as in a small case series of 4 patients with cystic fibrosis colonized with extensively drug-re&shy;sistant 

Despite promising in vitro activity and successful use in a small number of patients, the activity of ceftazidime/avibactam against 

 Against extensively drug-resistant isolates, a novel quadruple-drug combi&shy;nation of ceftazidime/avibactam and piperacillin/ tazobactam has shown promising activity.

The mechanism appears to be dependent on slow hydrolysis of piperacillin by AmpC and inhibition of PenA by avibactam, and therefore, ceftazidime and tazobactam are simply “bystanders” to the desired piperacillin/avibactam combination. No literature on the clinical utility of this combina&shy;tion is currently available. No published data are available on the potential utility of other novel β-lactamase inhibitors against 

complex infections. Ceftolozane/tazobactam activity has variable activity against 

complex members and does not add appreciable activity in ceftazidime-resistant strains.

Cefiderocol, a novel siderophore cephalosporin, is stable against hydrolysis by both serine and metallo-b-lactamases. Mechanistically, cefiderocol chelates ferric iron and is transported across the outer membrane and into the periplasmic space, where it binds to penicillin binding protein 3.

 Against a collection of North American and European gram-negative organisms, cefiderocol demonstrated potent in vitro activity against 

, 0.5 μg/mL; 100% sensitive at a provi&shy;sional breakpoint of 

1 μg/mL, with a single isolate having a MIC of 16 μg/mL.

was again seen in a collection of gram-negative isolates from a Comprehensive Cancer Center in the southern United States, in addition to observed activity against 

 To date, no published clinical data are available on the utility of cefid&shy;erocol against these organisms, and the compound is not by the US Food and Drug Administration. In vitro data suggest that cefiderocol is a potentially promising option against these problem pathogens.

A knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of β-lactam resistance is crucial to understanding the potential utility, or lack thereof, of novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors against less common non—lactose-fermenting gram-negative organisms. These associations can be extended to 

spp, in which intrinsic resis&shy;tance to cephalosporins and carbapenems is due to efflux pumps, and accordingly novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors are inactive. In 

, an intrinsic cephalosporinase and metallo-β-lactamase confer resistance to novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors, although the addition of aztreonam to avibactam overcomes this resistance. Lastly, 

, which expresses a class A carbapenemase and AmpC-type enzyme, is generally sensitive to ceftazidime/avibactam and in combination with piperacillin/avibactam appears to restore activity against some resistant isolates. As these organisms are poorly studied, further in vitro and clinical data are needed to validate the potential clinical role of these novel agents.

Spitznogle is a PGY-2 infectious diseases pharmacy resident at The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston. She graduated from the University at Buffalo School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences in New York. *She is an active member of the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists.

Aitken is a pharmacy clinical specialist in infectious diseases at The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center and a faculty member of the Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Genomics at UTHealth McGovern Medical School, both in Houston. *He is an active member of the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists.

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Novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations and cefiderocol may play a part in the treatment of infections caused by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Achromobacter xylosoxidans, and Burkholderia cepacia complex. 

Samuel L. Aitken, PharmD, MPH, BCIDP*

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